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The Green Revolution may soon usher in a major victory. When large-scale electricity becomes a "storable" and "portable" energy source, energy efficiency will be significantly improved, and progress will also be made in promoting renewable energy. Storage and portability are important advantages of liquid fuels, while electricity supplied through battery systems has the potential to provide a viable alternative method. Electricity can be used in almost all energy consuming devices, and it can also originate from almost all available energy sources. Nuclear energy, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, and liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel, ethanol, hydrogen, etc.) can all be easily converted into electrical energy. Therefore, compared to petroleum fuels, the significant advantage of electricity is that it can generate energy anytime and anywhere using the most cost-effective processing methods.

The standardization of electrical energy can achieve economies of scale and eliminate the infrastructure required for local fuel consumption. The superior energy storage capability makes it easy to generate electricity (with the highest efficiency and not 'on-demand'), and the current situation is generally like this. For example, wind and solar power generation may not necessarily match the peak power demand pattern, while the storable characteristics can alleviate this problem to some extent. The superior portability allows electric energy to be used as the energy source for automobiles, which are major energy consumers. Over time, other users who tend to use green energy will definitely benefit from this technology.

Requirements for battery systems in electric vehicles

Electric vehicles provide a huge development opportunity for the green revolution for many reasons. Electric vehicles have replaced gas power with grid electricity. The generation efficiency of grid electricity is very high and can be obtained from almost all energy sources. In addition, the energy efficiency of electric vehicles is higher than that of fuel vehicles. Most cars will experience a continuous cycle of acceleration, deceleration, and idling during operation. In contrast, variable loads such as acceleration or deceleration are more advantageous for electric motors (rather than fuel engines) because they provide high torque at low speeds. The working efficiency of a fuel engine only reaches its maximum within a very narrow speed/load range, and to meet peak acceleration requirements, it must be super large. The efficiency of engines used to convert gasoline energy into kinetic energy is typically 20%, while electric motors can achieve a typical efficiency of 90% in the process of converting electrical energy into kinetic energy. In addition, electric motors do not need to consume energy unnecessarily due to idling during parking, and the electric system also has the potential to recover mechanical energy through regenerative braking. The fact that the typical energy consumption cost of electric vehicles is only $0.013 per mile shows the overall improvement in energy efficiency.

Unfortunately, in today's market, pure electric vehicles are not yet a feasible solution because their driving distance is limited by the energy stored in the vehicle. The common battery pack nowadays can enable an electric car to travel 100 miles after being charged for 8 hours. A typical car fuel tank can provide a standard car with a driving distance of 300 miles and can be refueled in just a few minutes. If electric vehicles want to gain widespread acceptance among American consumers, they must extend their driving distance and/or shorten their recharging time. The emerging approach is the "hybrid electric vehicle", which combines a fuel engine and an electric transmission system to provide sufficient driving distance while still retaining most of the benefits of green energy. Oil electric hybrid vehicles use an onboard gas engine (for battery charging) and operate the engine within the most efficient speed/torque range when needed.

Undoubtedly, the success of electric vehicles will help other high-performance battery systems find their own living space, thereby promoting their price reduction and performance improvement. Regarding local power generation (including small-scale photovoltaic or wind power systems), batteries can play a crucial balancing role, and when grid power can be used, they can also serve as a backup power system. The current battery system is quite expensive and large, and there are reliability and safety issues. The next generation battery system will supply higher energy density, aiming to achieve smaller appearance, lower price, higher reliability and safety processing methods.

The Design Challenge of High Voltage Battery Pack

Regarding the use of high-power batteries, lithium-ion batteries can be the preferred chemical battery due to their high energy density. Today's electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles use NiMH batteries, and if lithium-ion batteries are used, their energy storage density will be increased by 400%. However, in order to maintain the reliability of lithium-ion batteries during up to thousands of charge and discharge cycles, battery systems have to deal with many technical challenges.

The performance of lithium-ion batteries depends on battery temperature and lifespan, battery charging and discharging rates, and state of charge (SOC). These factors are not independent. For example, lithium-ion batteries generate heat during discharge, which increases the discharge current. This may lead to thermal runaway and result in catastrophic failures. In addition, charging lithium-ion batteries to 100% SOC or discharging them to 0% SOC will rapidly reduce their capacity. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the operation of lithium-ion batteries to a certain SOC range, such as 20% to 80%, where the available capacity is only 60% of the specified capacity. Not only that, lithium-ion batteries also have a flat discharge curve (Figure 1), where a 1% SOC change may only manifest as a voltage difference of a few millivolts. To fully utilize the available voltage range of the battery, the battery system must monitor the battery voltage very accurately (which corresponds directly to SOC).

In addition to the sensitive characteristics of lithium-ion batteries, the method of packaging the batteries together is also a crucial consideration. To supply effective power from an electrical system, such as the one used to accelerate a vehicle, a voltage of several hundred volts is required. For example, delivering 1kW of power at 1V requires a current of 1000A, while delivering 1kW of power at 100V only requires a current of 10A. The inherent resistance in system wiring and interconnects will be converted into IR losses, so designers need to use the feasible highest voltage/lowest current.

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